Prevention, Recognition, and Management of Vascular Access Device-Related Infections

Terminology and Diagnostic Criteria

2.1 Catheter-Associated Bloodstream Infection (CABSI)

Catheter-associated bloodstream infection serves as a comprehensive term encompassing bloodstream infections that originate from either peripheral or central vascular access devices. Recognition that both device types can cause equally serious infections has led to the adoption of this unified terminology. Bloodstream infections related to vascular catheters can develop through four distinct pathways: transfer of microorganisms along the catheter tract during insertion, contamination at the catheter hub or lumen during routine access and manipulation, seeding from endogenous microorganisms already present in the bloodstream, and infusion of contaminated solutions or medications.

2.2 Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infection (CR-BSI)

This diagnostic criterion provides definitive confirmation that the catheter serves as the infection source. Diagnosis requires isolation of the identical organism from both a blood culture and the catheter tip culture, with quantitative tip culture yielding greater than 15 colony forming units (CFUs). An alternative diagnostic approach utilizes differential time to positivity (DTP), which requires the same organism isolated from both a peripheral venous blood culture and a catheter lumen blood culture, with the catheter sample demonstrating positive growth at least two hours before the peripheral sample (Mermel et al., 2009; Timsit et al., 2018).

2.3 Central Line-Associated Bloodstream Infection (CLABSI)

This surveillance definition identifies a primary bloodstream infection occurring in a patient with a central line in place on the day of infection onset or the preceding day, provided the patient had central access for more than two calendar days. Clinical teams should recognize that surveillance definitions may overestimate the true incidence of catheter-related infections and should not substitute for definitive diagnostic criteria when making treatment decisions (Buetti et al., 2022).

Fundamental Prevention Principles

3.1 Care Bundle Implementation

Effective prevention of vascular access device infections requires implementation of comprehensive care bundles combined with an institutional culture that prioritizes safety and quality. These bundles address critical elements during both device insertion and ongoing maintenance phases. Essential components include verification that clinicians performing insertions possess documented competency through appropriate training and assessment programs. Institutions should consider consultation with vascular access specialty teams when basic prevention measures have failed to achieve acceptable infection rates, as these specialized services have demonstrated effectiveness in reducing catheter-associated infections (Rupp & Majorant, 2016; Martillo et al., 2020; Buetti et al., 2022).

Optimization of catheter lumen utilization helps minimize infection risk by reducing the number of access points requiring manipulation. Interdisciplinary coordination of medication scheduling can facilitate safe care delivery while using the minimum number of lumens necessary. Documentation systems should capture key aspects of insertion and post-insertion care in readily retrievable formats that support infection prevention surveillance and quality improvement efforts.

3.2 Collaborative Quality Improvement

Multidisciplinary rounds and systematic audits serve as effective strategies for enhancing compliance with infection prevention protocols. Regular assessment of adherence to established practices allows identification of gaps and opportunities for improvement. Quality improvement initiatives incorporating standardized audit tools and feedback mechanisms have demonstrated sustained reductions in infection rates across diverse healthcare settings (Pate et al., 2022; Thate et al., 2020; Han et al., 2019; Hugo et al., 2022). Establishing dedicated surveillance programs for catheter-related bloodstream infections provides the measurement infrastructure necessary to drive and sustain improvement (Hallam et al., 2018). Professional adherence to infection prevention guidelines can be improved through systematic multicomponent interventions including audit, feedback, and multidisciplinary education (Flodgren et al., 2013; Owings et al., 2018).

3.3 Site Selection Considerations

Anatomical site selection for vascular access device placement significantly influences infection risk. Clinicians should evaluate patient-specific factors, anticipated duration of therapy, and intended uses when determining optimal insertion sites. Site selection decisions should balance infection risk against other considerations including thrombosis risk, patient comfort, and technical feasibility of device placement and maintenance.

Skin Antisepsis and Barrier Precautions

4.1 Pre-Insertion and Maintenance Antisepsis

Appropriate skin antisepsis at the vascular access site prior to insertion and during routine care represents a cornerstone of infection prevention. Standardized protocols should specify antiseptic agents, application technique, and required drying time before device insertion or dressing application.

4.2 Chlorhexidine-Containing Dressings

Evidence supports the use of chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG)-containing dressings for prevention of central line-associated bloodstream infections in patients over two months of age with short-term central venous access devices. This recommendation extends to oncohematological patients unless specific contraindications exist, such as known sensitivity or allergy to chlorhexidine (Safdar et al., 2014; Wei et al., 2019; Puig-Asensio et al., 2020).

Clinical judgment should guide decisions regarding CHG-containing dressings in patients with complicated dermatologic conditions including Stevens-Johnson syndrome, graft-versus-host disease, burns, and anasarca. Sites with heavy exudate, immunocompromised patients, and infants or young children warrant careful consideration of risks and benefits. Manufacturers’ directions for use should inform application decisions in these populations (Düzkaya et al., 2016; Levy et al., 2005).

For oncology patients receiving prolonged infusions exceeding four to six hours, chlorhexidine-containing dressings around needle insertion sites provide additional protection (Schulmeister, 2017). Studies in both inpatient and outpatient hemodialysis populations have demonstrated reduced catheter-related infection rates with CHG-containing dressing use (Apata et al., 2017). Limited evidence suggests silver-plated dressings may reduce central line-associated infections in intensive care settings, though this requires further validation (Karlnoski et al., 2019).

4.3 Chlorhexidine Bathing Protocols

Daily chlorhexidine bathing represents an effective strategy for reducing catheter-associated bloodstream infections in patients with central venous access devices in place, including infants. Multiple systematic reviews and meta-analyses support this intervention across diverse patient populations and healthcare settings (Choi et al., 2015; Musuuza et al., 2019; Scheier et al., 2021; Chapman et al., 2021; Reynolds et al., 2019; Reynolds et al., 2021).

Implementation in neonatal populations, particularly low-birthweight and premature infants, requires careful attention to skin integrity and the potential for cutaneous injury. Manufacturer instructions regarding application of chlorhexidine-impregnated cloths over transparent semipermeable membrane dressings and along administration set tubing should guide practice. Combining chlorhexidine bathing with nasal decolonization protocols may provide additive benefit in reducing infections (Samuelson et al., 2018).

Device-Specific Prevention Strategies

5.1 Antimicrobial Catheters

Antimicrobial-impregnated or coated catheters offer an additional preventive strategy for reducing catheter-associated bloodstream infections. These devices incorporate antimicrobial agents into or onto the catheter material to inhibit microbial colonization. Consideration of antimicrobial catheters is appropriate when standard prevention measures have proven insufficient or in patient populations at elevated infection risk (Lai et al., 2016; Gilbert et al., 2020; Kagan et al., 2019).

5.2 Needleless Connector Management

Proper disinfection of needleless connectors before each access represents an essential element of intraluminal contamination prevention. Standardized protocols should specify the antiseptic agent, technique, and duration of friction application required to achieve adequate disinfection prior to connector use. Quality improvement initiatives targeting consistent application of aseptic non-touch technique in IV line maintenance have demonstrated significant reductions in healthcare-associated infections (Shettigar et al., 2021). Implementation of passive disinfection caps (port protectors) has demonstrated effectiveness in reducing CLABSI rates when deployed as part of a structured improvement initiative (Beeler et al., 2019).

5.3 Antimicrobial Barrier Caps for Hemodialysis

For patients receiving outpatient hemodialysis through central venous catheters, antimicrobial barrier caps provide a passive disinfection strategy that has demonstrated effectiveness in reducing bloodstream infection rates. Cluster-randomized trials support incorporation of these devices into standard care protocols for this population (Hymes et al., 2017; Brunelli et al., 2018; Weiss & Qureshi, 2021).

5.4 Prophylactic Antimicrobial Lock Solutions

Antimicrobial catheter lock solutions warrant consideration for high-risk patients and for individuals with long-term central venous access who have experienced multiple catheter-associated infections despite optimal adherence to aseptic technique. Selection of lock solution formulation should consider the target pathogens, catheter compatibility, and potential for promoting antimicrobial resistance.

Clinical Assessment and Monitoring

6.1 Signs and Symptoms of Infection

Systematic assessment of vascular access device insertion and exit sites for infection indicators forms an essential component of ongoing device surveillance. Clinical manifestations requiring evaluation include erythema, edema, pain, tenderness, purulent drainage, and induration at the exit site. For totally implanted devices and tunneled catheters, assessment extends to evaluation for fluid accumulation in the subcutaneous pocket, tunnel tenderness or induration, drainage, and skin breakdown overlying the device. Systemic manifestations including fever should prompt consideration of device-related infection (Nickel, 2020; Lladó Maura et al., 2023).

Clinicians should recognize that not all microorganisms produce local site symptoms and that absence of exit site abnormalities does not exclude the possibility of catheter-related infection. When signs or symptoms suggestive of vascular access device-related infection are identified, immediate notification of the responsible provider and initiation of appropriate diagnostic and therapeutic interventions is warranted.

6.2 Patient Education

Patients with vascular access devices should receive education regarding infection risks, recognition of concerning signs and symptoms, and importance of promptly reporting changes to their healthcare team. Education should address any specific follow-up requirements related to their device type and clinical situation.

Device Removal Decisions

7.1 Peripheral Intravenous Catheters

Peripheral intravenous catheters should be removed when patients develop signs of complication or failure including infection-related findings such as erythema extending at least one centimeter from the insertion site, induration, purulent exudate, or fever without another identifiable source. Patient reports of pain or tenderness associated with the catheter warrant prompt removal and evaluation (Chopra et al., 2015; Pearse et al., 2022).

Catheters inserted under emergent conditions without full adherence to aseptic non-touch technique should be replaced at the earliest clinically appropriate opportunity to minimize infection risk.

7.2 Central Vascular Access Devices

Management decisions for central venous access devices suspected of infection require careful consideration of multiple factors. A functioning central device should not be removed solely on the basis of elevated body temperature without additional confirmatory evidence of catheter-related infection. Fever alone, in the absence of other findings, has low specificity for catheter infection and removal may unnecessarily deprive patients of essential vascular access (Mermel et al., 2009; Timsit et al., 2018).

When catheter-related infection is suspected, clinicians should assess the risks and benefits of device removal versus attempted catheter salvage. Relevant considerations include whether the device is a short-term or long-term catheter, the identity of the infecting organism, the severity of clinical illness, the availability of alternative vascular access sites, and the technical feasibility of inserting a replacement device. Infectious disease consultation can provide valuable guidance in complex cases (Corkum et al., 2017; Raad et al., 2016; Secco et al., 2021; Chaftari et al., 2018).

Indications for prompt catheter removal include clinical deterioration, persistent bacteremia despite appropriate antimicrobial therapy, and relapsing bloodstream infection. When central access remains necessary, timing of new catheter insertion at an alternative site should reflect collaborative decision-making that weighs patient-specific risks, benefits, and ongoing vascular access requirements (Chopra et al., 2015; Buetti et al., 2022). Systematic efforts to reduce unnecessary central venous catheter use represent a high-leverage prevention strategy, as eliminating unneeded devices eliminates exposure risk (Xiong et al., 2018).

7.3 Guidewire Exchange Considerations

Guidewire exchange should not be used to replace a non-tunneled central venous catheter suspected of infection. This approach risks introducing organisms along the new catheter tract and is not recommended in the setting of suspected catheter-related infection (O’Grady et al., 2011).

In situations where alternative vascular access sites are severely limited or when bleeding disorders make new site puncture hazardous, careful assessment of risks versus benefits may support consideration of catheter exchange procedures. If exchange is undertaken under these circumstances, use of an antimicrobial-impregnated replacement catheter may reduce subsequent infection risk (Mermel et al., 2009; Timsit et al., 2018).

Diagnostic Evaluation

8.1 Culture Collection Principles

When catheter-associated bloodstream infection is suspected, appropriate diagnostic evaluation enables accurate identification of the infection source and guides antimicrobial therapy selection. Blood cultures obtained before initiating empirical antimicrobial treatment provide optimal diagnostic yield.

Routine culture of vascular access device tips upon removal is not recommended in the absence of suspected infection. Catheter colonization detected through routine surveillance cultures may prompt inappropriate antimicrobial therapy and contribute to emergence of resistant organisms. Additionally, tip cultures primarily identify organisms on the extraluminal catheter surface and may not detect intraluminal contamination (Buetti et al., 2022; Mermel et al., 2009; Timsit et al., 2018).

8.2 Culture Methods for Suspected Infection

When a short-term central venous catheter, peripheral intravenous catheter, or arterial catheter is suspected as the infection source, the catheter tip should be cultured upon removal using semiquantitative (roll-plate) or quantitative (sonication) methods. For pulmonary artery catheters, the introducer sheath tip should be submitted for culture. When an implanted vascular access port is removed for suspected infection, both the reservoir contents and catheter tip should be cultured (Mermel et al., 2009; Timsit et al., 2018).

Purulent exudate from peripheral or central device exit sites should be collected for culture to identify causative fungi or bacteria and guide empirical antimicrobial selection. Such cultures help determine whether gram-positive, gram-negative, or fungal pathogens are present (Buetti et al., 2022; Pate et al., 2022).

8.3 Paired Blood Culture Technique

Definitive diagnosis of catheter-related bloodstream infection requires paired blood samples collected from the catheter and a peripheral vein before antimicrobial therapy initiation. This approach enables application of diagnostic criteria that confirm the catheter as the infection source. Catheter-related bloodstream infection is the likely diagnosis when clinical signs of sepsis are present without an alternative obvious source and one of the following laboratory findings is demonstrated:

Positive semiquantitative culture (greater than 15 colony forming units) or quantitative culture (equal to or greater than 1,000 colony forming units) from a catheter segment, with the identical organism isolated from peripheral blood culture. Alternatively, simultaneous quantitative blood cultures demonstrating a ratio of at least 3:1 when comparing organism concentration in catheter-drawn versus peripherally-drawn samples supports the diagnosis. Differential time to positivity, with catheter cultures becoming positive more than two hours before peripheral cultures, provides additional diagnostic evidence (Mermel et al., 2009; Garcia et al., 2015; Karnatak et al., 2019).

8.4 Specimen Collection Quality

The accuracy of blood culture diagnostics depends critically on specimen collection technique. Contamination of blood cultures with skin flora can produce false-positive results that complicate clinical interpretation and may lead to unnecessary catheter removal or antimicrobial therapy. Institutions should monitor blood culture contamination rates as a quality indicator and implement targeted interventions when contamination exceeds acceptable thresholds (Garcia et al., 2015; Santos et al., 2019).

8.5 Infusate Contamination

Though uncommon, contamination of infusate solutions should be considered as a potential infection source. Parenteral solutions, intravenous medications, and blood products can become contaminated either during manufacturing (intrinsic contamination) or during preparation and administration in the clinical setting (extrinsic contamination). Parenteral nutrition preparations require particular attention given their composition provides favorable conditions for microbial growth (O’Grady et al., 2011).

Special Population Considerations

9.1 Pediatric Patients

Prevention and management of vascular access device infections in pediatric populations requires attention to developmental considerations, differences in skin integrity, and age-appropriate care practices. Chlorhexidine-containing products should be used with appropriate caution in neonates and infants, particularly those who are premature or low birthweight, given increased risk of cutaneous toxicity. Quality improvement initiatives targeting pediatric populations have demonstrated that central line-associated bloodstream infection rates can be significantly reduced through standardized bundle implementation (Bierlaire et al., 2021; Khieosanuk et al., 2022; Ardura et al., 2021; Campbell et al., 2019). Hospital-wide reviews of pediatric bloodstream infections identify modifiable system-level risk factors and provide actionable lessons for prevention program design (Campbell et al., 2019). Registry-based approaches and standardized outcome datasets support benchmarking and continuous improvement in pediatric vascular access care (Schults et al., 2019). Understanding the temporal patterns of CLABSI onset in pediatric oncology populations—including periods of highest risk during catheter dwell time—can guide targeted prevention interventions (Han et al., 2021).

9.2 Oncology and Immunocompromised Patients

Patients with hematologic malignancies, those receiving chemotherapy, and immunocompromised individuals face elevated risks for catheter-associated infections and may experience more severe consequences. Prevention bundle implementation adapted to ambulatory oncology settings has demonstrated effectiveness in these populations. Decisions regarding catheter salvage versus removal in the setting of infection require careful consideration of the patient’s underlying condition, treatment requirements, and vascular access limitations (Ardura et al., 2021).

9.3 Hemodialysis Patients

Patients receiving hemodialysis through central venous catheters represent a population at particularly elevated risk for bloodstream infections, with documented health disparities in infection incidence across racial and socioeconomic groups (Rha et al., 2023). Dedicated quality improvement programs, antimicrobial barrier caps, and chlorhexidine-containing dressings have all demonstrated effectiveness in reducing infection rates in this population. Sustained surveillance and intervention programs can achieve and maintain significant infection reductions in dialysis settings (Gork et al., 2019; Apata et al., 2017; Conwell et al., 2019).

9.4 Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia

Management of vascular access in patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia requires particular attention given the serious complications associated with this organism. Retrospective data suggest that early peripherally inserted central catheter placement may be safe in patients with S. aureus bloodstream infection, though prospective validation is needed. Establishing safe, reliable vascular access in these patients should be prioritized while maintaining appropriate infection control precautions (Stewart & Runnegar, 2018).

Key Recommendations

Prevention of vascular access device-related infections requires a multifaceted approach combining evidence-based insertion and maintenance practices with systematic surveillance and quality improvement. Care bundles addressing hand hygiene, maximal barrier precautions, appropriate skin antisepsis, optimal site selection, and prompt removal of unnecessary devices form the foundation of prevention efforts.

Chlorhexidine-containing dressings provide additional protection against central line-associated infections for most patients with short-term central access. Daily chlorhexidine bathing offers a supplementary strategy for reducing catheter-associated infections across diverse patient populations. Specialized devices including antimicrobial-impregnated catheters and barrier caps may benefit specific populations or situations where standard measures have proven insufficient.

Clinical assessment should include systematic evaluation for infection signs and symptoms, with recognition that some infections may not produce local manifestations. Diagnostic evaluation of suspected catheter-related bloodstream infection should employ paired blood cultures to enable definitive diagnosis. Catheter removal decisions require individualized assessment weighing infection severity, pathogen identity, alternative access availability, and patient-specific factors.

Ongoing quality improvement efforts, including collaborative rounds, compliance audits, and outcome surveillance, support sustained achievement of infection prevention goals. Institutional cultures that prioritize safety, combined with clinician competency in vascular access practices, create the foundation for minimizing the burden of these preventable infections.

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This document represents a synthesis of current evidence-based recommendations and is intended for use by qualified clinical professionals. Local institutional policies, patient-specific factors, and evolving evidence should inform clinical decision-making.