Catheter-Associated Thrombosis

Definitions

1.1 Catheter-Associated Thrombosis (CAT)

Catheter-associated thrombosis refers to thrombus formation that develops as an inflammatory response to vessel wall injury caused by an indwelling vascular access device. On ultrasound examination, CAT appears as an anechoic or hypoechoic mass that partially or completely occludes the vessel lumen.

CAT is classified according to anatomical location (deep versus superficial veins) and clinical presentation (symptomatic versus asymptomatic). The majority of CAT cases are asymptomatic. Although overall rates remain relatively low, thrombotic complications can impair device function, delay treatment, necessitate anticoagulation therapy, cause premature device removal, increase healthcare costs, and potentially lead to post-thrombotic syndrome (Li et al., 2021; Chopra et al., 2013).

1.2 Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT)

Deep vein thrombosis involves thrombus formation within the deep venous system. In the upper extremity, this includes the brachial, axillary, subclavian, and internal jugular veins. In the lower extremity, affected vessels include the iliac, femoral, and popliteal veins. Diagnosis is established through compression ultrasonography, venography, or computed tomography imaging (Chopra et al., 2013; Li et al., 2021).

Upper extremity DVT (UE-DVT) frequently occurs in association with VADs placed in smaller arm vessels where blood flow velocity is reduced.

1.3 Superficial Vein Thrombosis (SVT)

Superficial vein thrombosis affects the superficial venous system, including the basilic and cephalic veins in the upper extremity and the saphenous veins in the lower extremity.

1.4 Venous Thromboembolism (VTE)

Venous thromboembolism encompasses both deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Some clinical studies also include superficial vein thrombosis within this category.

1.5 Fibroblastic Sleeve

A fibroblastic sleeve is a sheath of connective tissue that forms around an indwelling catheter as part of the body’s adaptive response to a foreign object. Unlike thrombus, this structure does not originate from the vessel wall. Histologically, it contains fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, and collagen. While typically asymptomatic, a fibroblastic sleeve can cause catheter dysfunction if it obstructs the catheter tip (Trezza et al., 2021).

1.6 Post-Thrombotic Syndrome (PTS)

Post-thrombotic syndrome is a chronic complication that may develop following venous thrombosis, most commonly after DVT. Clinical manifestations include persistent pain, tenderness, edema, and skin changes in the affected extremity. Endothelial injury from VAD insertion represents a potential contributing factor (Polen et al., 2015; Thiyagarajah et al., 2019).

Risk Factor Identification

Comprehensive risk assessment should be performed for all patients requiring vascular access to inform device planning, guide monitoring intensity, and determine whether thromboprophylaxis is indicated.

2.1 Patient-Related Risk Factors

Multiple systemic conditions increase susceptibility to catheter-associated thrombosis. Active malignancy represents a significant risk factor, with thrombotic risk influenced by cancer type, tumor burden, and disease characteristics. Patients receiving chemotherapy face elevated risk compared to those not on active treatment (Leung et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2022; Farge et al., 2019).

Metabolic and endocrine conditions associated with increased CAT risk include diabetes mellitus and obesity (Simonetti et al., 2022). Inherited thrombophilias such as Factor V Leiden mutation, protein C deficiency, and protein S deficiency predispose patients to thrombotic events, although routine thrombophilia screening is not recommended for pediatric patients with catheter-associated DVT (Neshat-Vahid et al., 2016; Hansen et al., 2021).

Critical illness substantially elevates thrombotic risk across patient populations. Personal or family history of prior thrombosis should be considered during risk stratification (Leung et al., 2015; Tan et al., 2019).

Additional patient factors that influence CAT risk include SARS-CoV-2 infection, patient age (though this varies considerably across studies and populations), pregnancy, elevated triglycerides, elevated low-density lipoprotein levels, ethnicity (with higher risk reported in Black or African American populations), reduced functional status (as measured by Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance scores), hospital readmission shortly after central vascular access device insertion, inadequate hydration and nutritional status, non-O blood types, and receipt of blood transfusions (Li et al., 2021; Tabatabaie et al., 2017; Jaffray et al., 2020; Sebolt et al., 2022; Frolova et al., 2022).

2.2 Device-Related Risk Factors

Characteristics of the vascular access device and insertion technique significantly influence thrombotic risk. Catheter tip malposition outside the optimal target zone increases thrombus formation (Chen et al., 2021). A higher catheter-to-vessel ratio, reflecting a larger catheter diameter relative to vessel size, reduces blood flow around the device and promotes thrombus development (Balsorano et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020).

Additional device-related factors include reduced blood flow velocity in the vessel segment containing the VAD, endothelial injury from the catheter or infused solutions, multiple insertion attempts, prolonged device dwell time, increased arm circumference, greater vein depth from the skin surface, and presence of a concurrent VAD in the same venous system (Li et al., 2021; Chopra et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2020; Ingram, 2022; Kleidon et al., 2021).

Research suggests that localized factors in the immediate area of the device may contribute more substantially to early thrombotic risk (within the first two weeks after insertion) than systemic factors (Chen et al., 2021). In pediatric patients, repeated PICC insertions in the same arm have been associated with increased risk and accelerated progression of symptomatic thrombosis (Gnannt et al., 2018).

2.3 Risk Assessment Tools

Various scoring systems have been studied to identify patients at elevated risk for catheter-associated thrombosis, primarily in patients receiving peripherally inserted central catheters. The Caprini Risk Assessment Model may have predictive value for PICC-related thrombosis, particularly in high-risk populations, though its moderate sensitivity and low specificity may result in overdiagnosis (Lin et al., 2021; Li et al., 2020; Feng et al., 2021).

The Michigan Risk Score was developed specifically to predict PICC-associated thrombosis and has been validated in hospitalized populations (Chopra et al., 2017; Kang et al., 2022). Emerging research indicates that machine learning approaches incorporating genetic data may enhance identification of high-risk patients (Liu et al., 2019).

Further validation studies are needed before these tools can be recommended for routine clinical application across all patient populations.

Thrombosis Prevention Through Device Selection

Device selection should integrate assessment of the patient’s vascular anatomy, treatment requirements, anticipated dwell time, and individual preferences including laterality considerations.

3.1 General Principles of Device Selection

Selecting the smallest diameter catheter with the fewest lumens capable of delivering the prescribed infusion therapy reduces thrombotic risk while maintaining clinical functionality (Liu et al., 2022; Schears et al., 2021; Gnannt et al., 2018; Baskin et al., 2019; Bahl et al., 2023).

3.2 Central Venous Access Device Considerations

For nontunneled central venous catheters in adult intensive care patients, the subclavian insertion site carries lower thrombotic risk compared to jugular or femoral approaches. However, subclavian access should be avoided in patients with chronic kidney disease due to increased risk of central venous stenosis that could compromise future dialysis access. The femoral site is associated with the highest thrombotic risk among central venous insertion locations (Parienti et al., 2015; Saha et al., 2022; Chopra, 2022).

3.3 Peripherally Inserted Central Catheters

PICCs have been associated with higher DVT rates than other central venous access devices, primarily due to reduced blood velocity in upper extremity vessels. This risk is particularly elevated in critically ill patients (Chopra et al., 2013; Kleidon et al., 2021; Schears et al., 2021).

However, meta-analytic data indicate that when optimal insertion techniques are employed and single-lumen, smaller diameter devices are selected, PICC-related DVT rates become comparable to other central venous access options (Schears et al., 2021).

A bundled approach to PICC insertion that incorporates systematic ultrasound vessel evaluation, site optimization, techniques that minimize vascular trauma, verified optimal tip placement, appropriate catheter-to-vein ratio (not exceeding 45%), and use of the smallest diameter and fewest lumens necessary has been shown to reduce thrombotic complications (Schears et al., 2021; Balsorano et al., 2020; Rabelo-Silva et al., 2022).

Evidence from a single-center randomized controlled trial suggests that tunneled PICCs may have lower thrombosis incidence and reduced maintenance costs compared to nontunneled PICCs, though additional research is warranted (Dai et al., 2020).

3.4 Implanted Vascular Access Ports in Oncology

For patients receiving cancer treatment, implanted vascular access ports are associated with lower thrombotic risk compared to PICCs and may be preferred when long-term access is anticipated (Farge et al., 2019; Capozzi et al., 2021; Taxbro et al., 2019; Moss et al., 2021).

The optimal location for port placement (chest versus arm) should balance known risks with patient preference and treatment requirements. Meta-analytic data suggest that total complication rates, including thrombosis, do not differ significantly between arm-placed and chest-placed ports in general oncology populations (Li et al., 2019). However, retrospective data in breast cancer patients specifically have shown increased symptomatic UE-DVT with arm-placed ports compared to chest-placed devices (Tippit et al., 2018).

For adult cancer outpatients requiring home parenteral nutrition, prospective data indicate that symptomatic catheter-related thrombosis rates are similarly low across PICCs, tunneled-cuffed catheters, and implanted ports (Cotogni et al., 2021).

3.5 Pediatric Device Selection

In children with cancer diagnoses, implanted ports are the preferred vascular access device for reducing VTE risk compared to tunneled and nontunneled central venous catheters (Hansen et al., 2021). Multicenter prospective data confirm that PICCs are associated with significantly higher catheter-related VTE risk than tunneled lines in pediatric patients (Jaffray et al., 2020).

3.6 Midline Catheters

Utilization of midline catheters has expanded substantially, creating an urgent need for high-quality comparative research. Systematic review and meta-analysis including over 40,000 adult patients found that VTE prevalence with midline catheters was significantly higher than with PICCs (Lu et al., 2022). Pediatric data on midline-associated thrombotic risk remain limited.

3.7 Thromboresistant Catheter Technologies

Catheter surface modifications and material innovations including hydrogel coatings, drug-eluting surfaces, and hydrophilic or hydrophobic characteristics represent an evolving area of research with potential for reducing thrombotic risk. However, confirmatory clinical trials with adequate sample sizes are needed before specific product recommendations can be made (Ngo & Grunlan, 2017; Slaughter et al., 2020; Moureau et al., 2022; Ullman, 2022; Bahl et al., 2021; Bunch, 2022; Winkler et al., 2021; Gavin et al., 2020).

3.8 Arterial Catheter Considerations

Thrombotic risk with arterial catheters can be minimized through ultrasound-guided insertion, optimization of catheter entry angle and intraluminal length, secure stabilization, and frequent monitoring of distal circulatory status (Ying et al., 2022; Imbrìaco et al., 2022).

Insertion Technique and Early Prevention

4.1 Qualified Inserters and Vascular Visualization

All vascular access devices should be inserted by clinicians with specific competency-based training who utilize real-time vascular visualization technology. Ultrasound guidance improves first-attempt success rates and reduces vascular trauma (Wang et al., 2020; Kleidon et al., 2021; Balsorano et al., 2020; Trezza et al., 2021).

4.2 Central Venous Catheter Tip Positioning

Optimal tip position for central venous access devices inserted via upper body sites is the lower third of the superior vena cava or upper third of the right atrium at or near the cavoatrial junction for both adult and pediatric patients. For devices inserted via lower body sites, the catheter tip should be positioned in the inferior vena cava above the level of the diaphragm.

Electrocardiography-guided tip positioning for PICCs has been associated with reduced thrombotic complications compared to traditional positioning methods (Kleidon et al., 2021; Yin et al., 2020).

For umbilical venous catheters in neonates, proper tip positioning must be verified before use to prevent thrombotic complications including portal vein thrombosis (Bersani et al., 2021).

4.3 Catheter-to-Vessel Ratio

The catheter-to-vessel ratio should be measured prior to insertion using ultrasound assessment. A ratio not exceeding 45% is recommended to maintain adequate blood flow around the catheter and reduce thrombotic risk (Li et al., 2021; Kleidon et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2021; Balsorano et al., 2020; Rabelo-Silva et al., 2022; Fabiani et al., 2023).

4.4 Catheter Exchange Considerations

PICC exchange over guidewire has been independently associated with approximately twofold increased thrombosis risk in retrospective analysis. This elevated risk may be influenced by the fact that patients requiring exchange were more likely to have multilumen devices (Chopra et al., 2018).

4.5 Post-Insertion Interventions

Upper extremity exercise may reduce venous stasis and lower thrombotic risk. Handgrip exercise using an elastic ball performed three to six times daily for three weeks following PICC insertion was associated with decreased incidence of ultrasound-confirmed DVT in patients with cancer (Liu et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2020; Qian et al., 2021). Further research is needed to identify optimal post-insertion nursing interventions for thrombosis prevention.

4.6 Pharmacologic Thromboprophylaxis

Universal prophylactic anticoagulation for all patients with central venous access has not been established as standard practice. Decisions regarding thromboprophylaxis should be individualized based on patient-specific risk factors (Schears et al., 2021; Li et al., 2021).

For patients with cancer requiring central venous access for treatment, VTE prophylaxis is recommended and has not been associated with increased major bleeding risk (Farge et al., 2019; Li et al., 2021; Kahale et al., 2018).

In pediatric populations, the role of pharmacologic VTE prophylaxis remains unclear. However, evidence from specific pediatric subgroups suggests that prophylactic anticoagulation may decrease CAT risk without increasing bleeding complications, including in children with inflammatory bowel disease and following infant cardiac surgery (Diamond et al., 2018; Swartz et al., 2022; Pelland-Marcotte et al., 2020).

Clinical Monitoring and Detection

5.1 Recognition of Clinical Manifestations

Clinicians must recognize that catheter-associated DVT frequently presents without overt signs or symptoms. When clinical manifestations do occur, they result from obstruction of venous return and may include pain in the affected extremity, shoulder, neck, or chest; unilateral edema; erythema; and visible engorgement of peripheral veins in the involved extremity (Li et al., 2021; Feng et al., 2021).

5.2 Extremity Measurement Protocol

Baseline circumference of the extremity should be measured and documented at the time of PICC or midline catheter insertion, with the precise anatomical location noted to ensure measurement consistency. Circumference should be reassessed whenever edema or signs suggestive of DVT are observed.

In adult patients with PICCs, an increase in mid-arm circumference of 3 centimeters or greater has been associated with catheter-related DVT (Li et al., 2021; Feng et al., 2021; Maneval & Clemence, 2014).

5.3 Pulmonary Embolism

Pulmonary embolism secondary to catheter-associated thrombosis is uncommon but has been reported in association with both central venous catheters and midline catheters (Chopra et al., 2013; Bahl et al., 2021; Houghton et al., 2021).

5.4 Post-Thrombotic Syndrome

Clinicians should recognize post-thrombotic syndrome as a potential long-term complication of catheter-associated DVT. This chronic condition is characterized by persistent pain, swelling, and skin changes in the affected extremity and may significantly impact patient quality of life (Wang et al., 2020; Polen et al., 2015; Thiyagarajah et al., 2019).

Diagnostic Confirmation and Treatment

6.1 Diagnostic Criteria

Catheter-associated DVT is confirmed using color-flow Doppler ultrasonography when at least two of the following findings are present: an echogenic mass within the venous structure under evaluation; noncompressibility of the vein; abnormal color Doppler flow pattern; or venous filling defect.

For evaluation of more proximal veins such as the brachiocephalic vein, which may be obscured by the clavicle or ribs on ultrasound, contrast venography may provide superior visualization (Li et al., 2021; Chopra et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2019; Jaffray et al., 2020; Moss et al., 2021).

6.2 Catheter Management in Confirmed Thrombosis

The presence of catheter-associated DVT does not automatically mandate device removal. When the catheter remains correctly positioned, functional, and necessary for ongoing infusion therapy, it may be retained. The decision to remove a central venous access device should be individualized based on the patient’s overall clinical status, symptom severity, imaging findings, and treatment requirements (Farge et al., 2019; Sharathkumar et al., 2020; Norris et al., 2019).

6.3 Anticoagulation Therapy

Treatment of confirmed catheter-associated DVT includes anticoagulation for a minimum of three months following diagnosis. For patients with indwelling devices anticipated to remain for extended periods, anticoagulation should continue for the duration of catheter dwell time.

Patients with severe symptoms may benefit from unfractionated heparin infusion or catheter-directed thrombolysis, though these interventions require careful assessment of bleeding risk and patient stability (Li et al., 2021; Farge et al., 2019; Sebolt et al., 2022).

Device Removal

7.1 Timely Removal

All vascular access devices should be removed promptly when no longer clinically indicated. Unnecessary prolongation of device dwell time increases cumulative thrombotic risk.

7.2 Implanted Port Considerations

Following completion of chemotherapy, the decision to retain or remove an implanted port requires careful evaluation of the patient’s risk profile, potential need for future vascular access, and patient preferences. Routine port removal at treatment completion is not universally recommended, but ongoing surveillance is warranted if the device is retained (Tippit et al., 2018).

Special Populations

8.1 Oncology Patients

Patients with active malignancy represent a high-risk population for catheter-associated thrombosis. Risk is influenced by cancer type, tumor characteristics, active chemotherapy administration, and functional status. Evidence supports use of thromboprophylaxis during cancer treatment requiring central venous access. Implanted ports are generally preferred for long-term access needs. Device selection should incorporate assessment of treatment duration, infusion requirements, and patient preference.

8.2 Critically Ill Patients

Critical illness elevates thrombotic risk across all vascular access types. PICCs in particular carry increased thrombotic risk in intensive care populations. When central venous access is required, subclavian insertion may offer lower thrombotic risk than internal jugular or femoral approaches in patients without chronic kidney disease.

8.3 Pediatric Patients

Children require age-appropriate risk assessment and device selection. Implanted ports are preferred for pediatric oncology patients requiring long-term access. Repeated PICC insertions in the same extremity should be avoided when possible due to cumulative thrombotic risk. Routine thrombophilia testing is not recommended following catheter-associated DVT in children.

8.4 Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease

Preservation of the venous system for potential future dialysis access is paramount. Subclavian catheterization should be avoided due to increased risk of central venous stenosis. Device selection should minimize central venous trauma while meeting immediate therapeutic needs.

Key Recommendations

Comprehensive risk assessment should precede vascular access device selection for all patients. Risk factors span patient-specific conditions, device characteristics, and insertion technique variables. Prevention strategies include selecting the smallest appropriate device, ensuring optimal tip positioning, maintaining catheter-to-vessel ratios below 45%, and considering thromboprophylaxis in high-risk populations.

Clinical monitoring should include baseline and serial extremity measurements for PICCs and midline catheters, with recognition that most catheter-associated thrombosis is asymptomatic. Diagnosis requires color-flow Doppler ultrasound demonstrating characteristic findings. Confirmed thrombosis is treated with anticoagulation for at least three months, with catheter retention appropriate when the device remains functional and necessary.

Devices should be removed promptly when no longer clinically indicated to minimize cumulative risk.

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Saha DK, Nazneen S, Ahsan ASMA, et al. Comparison of central venous catheter related deep venous thrombosis according to insertion site in an intensive care unit of Bangladesh. J Med (Bangladesh). 2022;23(1):20-23. doi:10.3329/jom.v23i1.57932

Schears GJ, Ferko N, Syed I, Arpino JM, Alsbrooks K. Peripherally inserted central catheters inserted with current best practices have low deep vein thrombosis and central line-associated bloodstream infection risk compared with centrally inserted central catheters: a contemporary meta-analysis. J Vasc Access. 2021;22(1):9-25. doi:10.1177/1129729820916113

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Sharathkumar AA, Biss T, Kulkarni K, et al. Epidemiology and outcomes of clinically unsuspected venous thromboembolism in children: a systematic review. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;18(5):1100-1112. doi:10.1111/jth.14739

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Yin YX, Gao W, Li XY, et al. Randomized multicenter study on long-term complications of peripherally inserted central catheters positioned by electrocardiographic technique. Phlebology. 2020;35(8):614-622. doi:10.1177/0268355520921357

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Document Version 1.0 This guideline represents a synthesis of current evidence and should be adapted to institutional policies and individual patient circumstances. Clinical judgment remains essential in applying these recommendations.